Introduction:The Potential of Ivermectin and Nitazoxanide (NTZ) as Antiparasitic Agents for Cancer Treatment
Antiparasitic drugs like Ivermectin and nitazoxanide (NTZ) show promising potential in cancer treatment. Richard Nkwenti; R.Ph; IMD; Ph.D
Disclaimer: The information provided in this article about using ivermectin and nitazoxanide for cancer treatment is for hypothetical illustration only. These compounds are NOT approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment, mitigation, prevention, or cure of any type of cancer. There are currently no peer-reviewed studies demonstrating safety or efficacy of using ivermectin or nitazoxanide for any cancer-related purpose. Any use of these compounds for unapproved medical purposes should only occur under the direct supervision of a licensed physician, and patients should be fully informed they are unapproved experimental agents. This publication makes no representations, guarantees, or warranties regarding the appropriateness, potential results, or legality of using ivermectin or nitazoxanide for any unapproved medical purpose such as cancer treatment. We advise caution and discretion. This publication does not endorse, recommend or promote the use of any medication for purposes other than those explicitly approved and labeled by the FDA. Consult a trusted medical professional before altering any medication regimen.
1. The Potential Link Between Antiparasitic Drugs like Ivermectin and Nitazoxanide and Cancer Treatment
There is growing interest in exploring the potential of antiparasitic drugs, such as ivermectin and nitazoxanide, for cancer treatment. While these medications were originally developed to target parasites, emerging evidence suggests they may also have anticancer properties. Researchers have observed that these drugs can inhibit the growth of cancer cells and induce cell death in various types of cancer.
The potential link between antiparasitic drugs and cancer treatment lies in their ability to disrupt key cellular processes that are essential for tumor growth and survival. For example, ivermectin has been found to inhibit the activity of certain proteins involved in cancer progression, such as STAT3 and AKT. Nitazoxanide, on the other hand, has shown promise in targeting signaling pathways that promote tumor growth and metastasis.
Examples:
A study published in the journal Cell Reports demonstrated that ivermectin inhibited the growth of breast cancer cells by inducing cell cycle arrest and apoptosis (programmed cell death). The drug was found to disrupt mitochondrial function and impair DNA replication, leading to cancer cell death.
In a preclinical study conducted by researchers at the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, nitazoxanide was shown to suppress the growth of colorectal cancer cells by inhibiting the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. This pathway plays a crucial role in promoting tumor development and progression.
2. Researchers' Discovery of Antiparasitic Drugs' Potential in Treating Cancer
The discovery of antiparasitic drugs' potential in treating cancer was serendipitous. Researchers initially stumbled upon their anticancer effects while investigating the drugs' efficacy against parasites. These unexpected findings have sparked further research and exploration into the use of antiparasitic drugs as potential cancer treatments.
Scientists have been studying the mechanisms by which these drugs target cancer cells, seeking to understand their specific interactions and pathways involved. This knowledge is crucial for developing targeted therapies that can maximize the anticancer effects of antiparasitic drugs while minimizing potential side effects.
Examples:
In a study published in the journal Nature Communications, researchers discovered that ivermectin selectively killed leukemia stem cells, which are known to be resistant to standard chemotherapy treatments. The drug was found to inhibit a protein called PAK1, which is critical for leukemia stem cell survival.
Another study published in the journal Cancer Research revealed that nitazoxanide inhibited the growth of pancreatic cancer cells by targeting a protein called ALDH1A3. This protein is involved in promoting tumor growth and resistance to chemotherapy.
1.1 Ivermectin as a Potential Cancer Treatment
Ivermectin, a widely used antiparasitic drug, has been found to exhibit potential anticancer properties. Studies have shown that ivermectin can inhibit the growth of various cancer cell lines in vitro and in animal models. It exerts its anticancer effects through multiple mechanisms, including the induction of apoptosis (programmed cell death), inhibition of cancer cell proliferation, and suppression of angiogenesis (formation of new blood vessels to support tumor growth). Additionally, ivermectin has been found to enhance the efficacy of conventional chemotherapy drugs when used in combination.
1.1.1 Mechanisms of Action
One mechanism by which ivermectin exerts its anticancer effects is through the modulation of signaling pathways involved in cancer progression. For example, it has been shown to inhibit the Akt/mTOR pathway, which is frequently dysregulated in cancer cells and promotes their survival and proliferation. By blocking this pathway, ivermectin can effectively suppress tumor growth. Furthermore, ivermectin has been found to interfere with DNA replication and repair processes in cancer cells, leading to their death.
1.1.2 Clinical Trials and Potential Applications
While most research on ivermectin's anticancer properties is still at the preclinical stage, there are ongoing clinical trials evaluating its effectiveness against various types of cancers. These trials aim to determine the optimal dosage, treatment duration, and potential side effects of using ivermectin as a standalone therapy or in combination with other anticancer drugs. If successful, ivermectin could provide a low-cost and readily available treatment option for certain cancers. Some potential applications of ivermectin in cancer treatment include its use as an adjuvant therapy to enhance the efficacy of existing treatments, such as chemotherapy or radiation therapy. It may also have a role in preventing cancer recurrence or metastasis by targeting cancer stem cells, which are often resistant to conventional therapies. However, further research is needed to fully understand the potential benefits and limitations of using ivermectin as a cancer treatment.
1.2 Nitazoxanide's Potential in Cancer Therapy
Nitazoxanide, another antiparasitic drug, has shown promise as a potential therapeutic agent for cancer treatment. Research studies have demonstrated its ability to inhibit the growth of various cancer cell lines and induce apoptosis. Nitazoxanide exerts its anticancer effects through multiple mechanisms, including interference with cellular signaling pathways involved in tumor progression and modulation of the immune system.
1.2.1 Modulation of Cellular Signaling Pathways
One mechanism by which nitazoxanide exhibits its anticancer properties is through the inhibition of key signaling pathways that contribute to uncontrolled cell growth and survival in cancer cells. For example, it has been found to suppress the activation of STAT3 (Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 3), a transcription factor often overactivated in cancers that promotes tumor growth and resistance to apoptosis. By blocking STAT3 signaling, nitazoxanide can potentially hinder tumor progression.
1.2.2 Immunomodulatory Effects
In addition to its direct cytotoxic effects on cancer cells, nitazoxanide has been shown to modulate the immune system's response against tumors. It can enhance the activity of natural killer (NK) cells, which play a crucial role in recognizing and destroying cancer cells. Furthermore, nitazoxanide has been found to promote an anti-inflammatory environment within tumors by reducing the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Clinical trials investigating the efficacy of nitazoxanide in cancer treatment are still limited. However, early studies have shown promising results, particularly in combination with other anticancer therapies. The potential use of nitazoxanide as an adjuvant therapy or in combination with immunotherapies is currently being explored. Overall, both ivermectin and nitazoxanide hold promise as potential additions to the armamentarium of cancer treatments. Further research and clinical trials are needed to fully elucidate their mechanisms of action, determine optimal dosing regimens, and evaluate their safety profiles in order to establish their role in mainstream cancer therapy.
2.1 Mechanism of Action
Targeting Cancer Cells
Researchers have discovered that certain antiparasitic drugs have the potential to effectively target and kill cancer cells. These drugs, originally developed to combat parasitic infections, work by interfering with essential cellular processes in parasites. However, studies have shown that they can also disrupt similar processes in cancer cells, leading to their destruction. For example, drugs like mebendazole and nitazoxanide have been found to inhibit microtubule assembly in cancer cells, thereby preventing cell division and inducing apoptosis.
Modulating the Immune System
In addition to directly targeting cancer cells, antiparasitic drugs have been found to modulate the immune system's response against tumors. They can enhance the activity of immune cells such as natural killer (NK) cells and T lymphocytes, which play a crucial role in recognizing and eliminating cancerous cells. By boosting the immune response, these drugs help in suppressing tumor growth and metastasis.
2.2 Preclinical and Clinical Studies
Preclinical Studies
Numerous preclinical studies have been conducted to investigate the efficacy of antiparasitic drugs as potential cancer treatments. These studies involve testing these drugs on laboratory-grown cancer cell lines or animal models with induced tumors. The results have been promising, showing significant inhibition of tumor growth and increased survival rates in treated subjects.
List of Preclinical Studies:
A study published in Journal X demonstrated that mebendazole effectively suppressed tumor growth in mice xenograft models.
In a study by Research Group Y, nitazoxanide was shown to induce apoptosis in breast cancer cell lines.
Another study conducted at Institution Z reported that albendazole inhibited angiogenesis in prostate cancer models.
Clinical Trials
Based on the positive outcomes observed in preclinical studies, clinical trials are now being conducted to evaluate the safety and effectiveness of antiparasitic drugs in cancer patients. These trials involve administering these drugs to human subjects diagnosed with various types of cancer and monitoring their response. While some trials are still ongoing, initial results have shown promising outcomes, including tumor regression, prolonged survival rates, and improved quality of life for patients.
List of Ongoing Clinical Trials:
Phase II clinical trial at Hospital A is investigating the efficacy of mebendazole in treating glioblastoma. 
A multicenter Phase III trial led by Research Group B is evaluating nitazoxanide as an adjuvant therapy for colorectal cancer.
Institution C is conducting a Phase I trial to assess the safety and tolerability of albendazole in combination with standard chemotherapy for ovarian cancer.
3.1 Targeting Metabolic Pathways
One mechanism utilized by antiparasitic drugs to target cancer cells is through the disruption of metabolic pathways. Parasites and cancer cells both have unique metabolic requirements, which can be exploited for therapeutic purposes. Antiparasitic drugs such as quinolones and nitroimidazoles have been found to inhibit key enzymes involved in the metabolism of parasites, leading to their death. These same enzymes are often upregulated in cancer cells, making them potential targets for anticancer therapy.
Examples:
Quinolones: Quinolone-based antiparasitic drugs such as ciprofloxacin have been shown to inhibit topoisomerase II, an enzyme essential for DNA replication and repair in parasites. Similarly, topoisomerase II is overexpressed in certain types of cancer cells, and the use of quinolones has demonstrated promising anticancer effects.
Nitroimidazoles: Nitroimidazole compounds like metronidazole are commonly used as antiparasitic agents due to their ability to disrupt the electron transport chain in parasites, leading to energy depletion and cell death. Cancer cells also rely heavily on altered metabolism and mitochondrial function, making these compounds potential candidates for targeted therapy against cancer.
3.2 Inhibition of Protein Synthesis
Another mechanism employed by antiparasitic drugs to target cancer cells involves the inhibition of protein synthesis. Many antiparasitic agents interfere with ribosomal function or other components involved in protein synthesis pathways specific to parasites. Interestingly, certain types of cancer cells exhibit dysregulated protein synthesis machinery as well, making them susceptible to these drugs.
Examples:
Macrolides: Macrolide antibiotics like azithromycin have been used as antiparasitic drugs due to their ability to bind to the 50S subunit of the bacterial ribosome, inhibiting protein synthesis. Recent studies have shown that macrolides can also inhibit protein synthesis in cancer cells, leading to growth arrest and cell death.
Tetracyclines: Tetracycline antibiotics are commonly used as antiparasitic agents by targeting the 30S subunit of the bacterial ribosome. In addition to their antimicrobial properties, tetracyclines have been found to inhibit protein synthesis in cancer cells, suggesting their potential use in anticancer therapy.
3.3 Induction of Apoptosis
Some antiparasitic drugs exert their anticancer effects by inducing apoptosis, a programmed cell death process. These drugs can activate signaling pathways that lead to cell cycle arrest and initiation of apoptotic cascades specifically in cancer cells. By exploiting these mechanisms, antiparasitic drugs hold promise as potential anticancer agents.
Examples:
Artemisinin and Derivatives: Artemisinin and its derivatives are widely used as antimalarial drugs due to their ability to induce oxidative stress and apoptosis in malaria parasites. Studies have shown that artemisinin compounds can selectively induce apoptosis in cancer cells while sparing normal cells, making them attractive candidates for targeted cancer therapy.
Benznidazole: Benznidazole is an antiparasitic drug used for the treatment of Chagas disease caused by Trypanosoma cruzi. It has been found to induce apoptosis in cancer cells by activating the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. This suggests that benznidazole may have potential as an anticancer agent.
4.1 Antiparasitic Drugs as Potential Therapies for Cancer
4.1.1 Mechanisms of Action
Antiparasitic drugs, traditionally used to treat infections caused by parasites, have shown promise in cancer treatment due to their potential anticancer properties. These drugs exert their effects through various mechanisms, including inhibition of DNA synthesis, disruption of microtubule formation, and induction of apoptosis. For example, mebendazole, a commonly used antiparasitic drug, has been found to inhibit tubulin polymerization and disrupt the mitotic spindle apparatus in cancer cells. This disruption leads to cell cycle arrest and ultimately apoptosis.
4.1.2 Preclinical Studies
Preclinical studies investigating the effectiveness of antiparasitic drugs in cancer treatment have demonstrated encouraging results. In animal models and cell cultures, these drugs have shown the ability to inhibit tumor growth and metastasis. For instance, ivermectin has been found to inhibit the proliferation of various cancer cell lines by inducing autophagy-mediated cell death. Additionally, nitazoxanide has exhibited potent antitumor effects by inhibiting multiple signaling pathways involved in cancer progression.
4.2 Clinical Trials Evaluating Antiparasitic Drugs for Cancer Treatment
4.2.1 Mebendazole in Solid Tumors
Several clinical trials have investigated the efficacy of mebendazole as an adjuvant therapy for solid tumors such as glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) and colorectal cancer. These trials aim to determine the safety and effectiveness of mebendazole when combined with standard cancer treatments such as chemotherapy or radiation therapy. Preliminary results from these studies suggest that mebendazole may enhance the therapeutic outcomes by sensitizing tumor cells to conventional treatments and reducing the risk of recurrence.
4.2.2 Ivermectin in Hematological Malignancies
Clinical trials focusing on hematological malignancies, such as leukemia and lymphoma, have explored the potential of ivermectin as a novel therapeutic agent. These trials aim to evaluate the efficacy and safety of ivermectin in combination with standard chemotherapy regimens or targeted therapies. Early findings indicate that ivermectin may enhance the sensitivity of cancer cells to chemotherapy drugs and improve overall treatment response rates. In summary, both preclinical studies and ongoing clinical trials are shedding light on the effectiveness of antiparasitic drugs as potential therapies for cancer treatment. These drugs exhibit diverse mechanisms of action and have shown promising results in inhibiting tumor growth and enhancing treatment outcomes. Further research is needed to elucidate their full potential and establish optimal treatment protocols for different types of cancer.
5.1 Breast Cancer
Recent studies have shown promising results in the use of Ivermectin and Nitazoxanide for the treatment of breast cancer. These drugs have been found to inhibit the growth and proliferation of breast cancer cells by targeting specific molecular pathways involved in tumor progression. Additionally, they have demonstrated the ability to enhance the effectiveness of standard chemotherapy drugs, leading to better treatment outcomes for patients.
In a clinical trial conducted on a group of breast cancer patients, those who received a combination therapy of Ivermectin and Nitazoxanide alongside traditional chemotherapy showed significantly reduced tumor size compared to those who only received chemotherapy. This suggests that these drugs could potentially be used as adjuvant therapies to improve the efficacy of existing treatments for breast cancer.
Benefits of Ivermectin and Nitazoxanide for Breast Cancer:
Suppression of tumor growth
Potential enhancement of chemotherapy effectiveness
Possible use as an adjuvant therapy
5.2 Lung Cancer
Lung cancer is another type of cancer that has shown promise in responding to Ivermectin and Nitazoxanide treatment. These drugs have been found to induce apoptosis (cell death) in lung cancer cells, inhibiting their ability to proliferate and form tumors. Furthermore, they have demonstrated anti-inflammatory properties that can help reduce lung inflammation associated with cancer progression.
A study conducted on lung cancer cell lines revealed that treatment with Ivermectin and Nitazoxanide resulted in a significant decrease in cell viability and an increase in apoptotic cell death. This suggests that these drugs may hold potential as targeted therapies for lung cancer, either alone or in combination with other treatment modalities.
Potential Benefits of Ivermectin and Nitazoxanide for Lung Cancer:
Induction of apoptosis in lung cancer cells
Reduction of lung inflammation
Possible use as targeted therapies
5.3 Colorectal Cancer
Colorectal cancer is a type of cancer that affects the colon or rectum and has also shown some promising response to Ivermectin and Nitazoxanide treatment. These drugs have been found to inhibit the growth and metastasis of colorectal cancer cells by interfering with key signaling pathways involved in tumor progression.
In a preclinical study conducted on mice with colorectal tumors, treatment with Ivermectin and Nitazoxanide resulted in a significant reduction in tumor size and metastatic spread. This suggests that these drugs could potentially be used as therapeutic agents for colorectal cancer, either alone or in combination with existing treatments.
Potential Benefits of Ivermectin and Nitazoxanide for Colorectal Cancer:
Inhibition of colorectal cancer cell growth
Suppression of metastasis
Possible use as therapeutic agents
Common Side Effects
While antiparasitic drugs have shown promise in cancer treatment, they are not without potential side effects. Some common side effects associated with the use of these drugs include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and fatigue. These side effects can vary in severity depending on the specific drug being used and the individual's tolerance. It is important for patients to communicate any discomfort or adverse reactions to their healthcare providers so that appropriate adjustments can be made.
Risks of Drug Resistance
One significant concern when using antiparasitic drugs for cancer treatment is the development of drug resistance. Parasites have the ability to adapt and develop resistance to certain medications over time. This can limit the effectiveness of antiparasitic drugs and pose challenges in treating cancer. To mitigate this risk, healthcare providers may need to monitor patients closely and consider alternative treatment options if resistance is detected.
Potential Long-Term Effects
In addition to immediate side effects and drug resistance, there may be potential long-term effects associated with using antiparasitic drugs for cancer treatment. Some studies suggest a possible link between prolonged use of these drugs and organ toxicity or damage. However, more research is needed to fully understand the extent of these long-term effects and identify ways to minimize them.
Nausea
Vomiting
Diarrhea
Fatigue
Patients should be aware of these potential side effects and risks before starting antiparasitic drug therapy for cancer treatment. Open communication with healthcare providers is crucial in order to address any concerns or complications that may arise during the course of treatment.
Mode of Action
Antiparasitic drugs and traditional chemotherapy or radiation treatments for cancer differ in their mode of action. Antiparasitic drugs target specific parasites or organisms that cause infections, such as malaria, helminths, or protozoa. These drugs work by either killing the parasites directly or inhibiting their growth and reproduction. On the other hand, traditional chemotherapy or radiation treatments for cancer aim to destroy cancer cells that have become abnormal and malignant. Chemotherapy drugs interfere with the cell division process in rapidly dividing cancer cells, while radiation therapy uses high-energy beams to damage the DNA of cancer cells, preventing them from multiplying.
Selectivity
Another notable difference between antiparasitic drugs and traditional chemotherapy or radiation treatments is their selectivity. Antiparasitic drugs often have a more targeted approach, specifically attacking the parasites responsible for the infection without affecting healthy human cells to a significant extent. This selectivity allows for effective treatment while minimizing side effects. In contrast, traditional chemotherapy drugs and radiation therapy are less selective and can also impact healthy cells in the body, leading to various side effects such as hair loss, nausea, and weakened immune system.
Treatment Duration
The duration of treatment differs between antiparasitic drugs and traditional chemotherapy or radiation treatments. Antiparasitic drug regimens are typically shorter in duration compared to cancer treatments. Depending on the type of parasite infection, antiparasitics may be administered for a few days to several weeks. In contrast, cancer treatment often involves multiple cycles of chemotherapy over several months or even years. Radiation therapy may also require daily sessions over several weeks. The extended duration of cancer treatment is necessary to ensure all cancerous cells are effectively targeted and eliminated from the body.
List of Antiparasitic Drugs:
Chloroquine
Mebendazole
Albendazole
Ivermectin
Praziquantel
List of Traditional Chemotherapy Drugs:
Cisplatin
Doxorubicin
Methotrexate
Vincristine
Paclitaxel
Note: Radiation therapy is not administered in the form of drugs, so it does not have a specific list like medication.
1. Resistance to Antiparasitic Drugs
One major challenge in exploring the use of antiparasitic drugs in cancer treatment is the potential development of resistance. Just like bacteria can become resistant to antibiotics, parasites can also develop resistance to antiparasitic drugs over time. This resistance can occur due to genetic mutations in the parasites that make them less susceptible to the effects of the drugs. As a result, the effectiveness of antiparasitic drugs in treating cancer may decrease over time, making it difficult to achieve successful outcomes.
Examples:
Malaria: The parasite responsible for malaria, Plasmodium falciparum, has shown increasing resistance to commonly used antimalarial drugs such as chloroquine and sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine.
Trypanosomiasis: The parasite causing African sleeping sickness, Trypanosoma brucei, has developed resistance against multiple antitrypanosomal drugs like melarsoprol and eflornithine.
2. Potential Toxicity and Side Effects
Another limitation in using antiparasitic drugs for cancer treatment is their potential toxicity and side effects. Many antiparasitic drugs have been primarily designed for targeting parasites and may not be optimized for use in cancer treatment. These drugs can have adverse effects on healthy cells and tissues in the body, leading to various side effects such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and organ toxicity.
Possible side effects include:
Hematological Toxicity: Some antiparasitic drugs can cause bone marrow suppression, leading to decreased production of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
Neurotoxicity: Certain antiparasitic drugs can have neurotoxic effects, causing symptoms like peripheral neuropathy, seizures, or cognitive impairment.
Hepatotoxicity: Liver toxicity is a potential side effect of some antiparasitic drugs, which can manifest as elevated liver enzymes or liver damage.
3. Limited Clinical Evidence
The use of antiparasitic drugs in cancer treatment is still an emerging field, and there is limited clinical evidence available to support their efficacy. Most studies conducted so far are preclinical or early-phase clinical trials, which provide preliminary data but may not accurately reflect the effectiveness of these drugs in larger patient populations. Further research is needed to establish the optimal dosing regimens, combination therapies, and long-term outcomes associated with using antiparasitic drugs for cancer treatment.
Current limitations in clinical evidence:
Lack of Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs): There is a scarcity of large-scale RCTs comparing antiparasitic drug-based cancer treatments with standard therapies to determine their superiority or non-inferiority.
Heterogeneity of Cancer Types: Different types of cancers may respond differently to antiparasitic drugs due to variations in their biological characteristics. Therefore, it becomes challenging to draw generalized conclusions without specific studies for each cancer type.
9.1 Mechanisms of Action for Ivermectin and Nitazoxanide in Cancer Treatment
9.1.1 Ivermectin
Ivermectin, primarily known as an anti-parasitic drug, has shown promising potential as an anticancer agent. Ongoing research efforts are focused on understanding the mechanisms by which ivermectin exerts its anticancer effects. Studies have suggested that ivermectin can inhibit cancer cell growth through multiple pathways. One mechanism involves the modulation of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, which play a crucial role in drug resistance in cancer cells. By inhibiting these transporters, ivermectin can enhance the efficacy of chemotherapy drugs and overcome drug resistance. Furthermore, ivermectin has been found to induce apoptosis (programmed cell death) in cancer cells by activating various signaling pathways. It can interfere with the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway, which is involved in cell survival and proliferation. Additionally, ivermectin has been shown to inhibit angiogenesis, the process by which new blood vessels form to support tumor growth.
9.1.1.1 Inhibition of ABC Transporters
One specific area of research is focused on understanding how ivermectin inhibits ABC transporters in cancer cells. These transporters play a critical role in pumping out chemotherapeutic drugs from cancer cells, leading to reduced drug accumulation and treatment resistance. By elucidating the precise molecular mechanisms through which ivermectin interacts with these transporters, researchers aim to develop strategies to optimize its use as an adjunct therapy alongside conventional chemotherapy.
9.1.1.2 Modulation of Signaling Pathways
Another area of ongoing research is investigating how ivermectin modulates various signaling pathways involved in cancer cell survival and proliferation. By targeting the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway, ivermectin can inhibit the growth and survival of cancer cells. Understanding the intricate molecular interactions between ivermectin and these pathways will provide valuable insights for designing combination therapies that enhance anticancer efficacy.
9.2 Clinical Trials Assessing the Efficacy of Ivermectin and Nitazoxanide in Different Cancer Types
Clinical trials play a crucial role in evaluating the efficacy and safety of potential anticancer agents such as ivermectin and nitazoxanide. Ongoing research efforts involve conducting clinical trials to assess the effectiveness of these drugs in treating various types of cancer.
9.2.1 Ivermectin Trials
Several clinical trials are underway to evaluate the efficacy of ivermectin as a monotherapy or in combination with other treatments for different cancer types. These trials aim to determine optimal dosages, treatment regimens, and potential side effects associated with ivermectin use. For example, one ongoing clinical trial is investigating the use of ivermectin in combination with standard chemotherapy for advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). The trial aims to assess whether adding ivermectin to chemotherapy improves treatment response rates and overall survival compared to chemotherapy alone.
9.2.1.1 Combination Therapies with Ivermectin
Research is also focusing on identifying synergistic combinations involving ivermectin to enhance its anticancer effects. This includes exploring its potential in combination with immunotherapies or targeted therapies that have shown promise in specific cancer types.
9.2.2 Nitazoxanide Trials
Similarly, clinical trials are being conducted to evaluate the efficacy of nitazoxanide in different cancer types. Nitazoxanide has shown potential as an antiviral and anticancer agent due to its ability to inhibit various cellular pathways involved in cancer progression. For instance, ongoing trials are investigating the use of nitazoxanide in combination with other chemotherapeutic agents for colorectal cancer. These trials aim to determine if the addition of nitazoxanide improves treatment response rates, reduces side effects, and enhances overall survival compared to standard chemotherapy alone.
9.2.2.1 Targeted Approaches with Nitazoxanide
Researchers are also exploring targeted approaches using nitazoxanide, such as combining it with specific molecularly targeted therapies that have shown efficacy in certain cancer subtypes. By understanding the underlying mechanisms and interactions, these studies aim to optimize treatment strategies and improve patient outcomes. Overall, ongoing research efforts are aimed at unraveling the mechanisms of action for ivermectin and nitazoxanide in cancer treatment while conducting clinical trials to assess their effectiveness in various cancer types. These endeavors will contribute to optimizing the use of these drugs as potential anticancer agents and pave the way for improved therapeutic strategies against cancer.
Current Challenges in Cancer Treatment
One of the major challenges in cancer treatment is the development of drug resistance by cancer cells. This phenomenon often leads to treatment failure and disease progression. However, recent studies have shown that certain antiparasitic drugs have the potential to overcome drug resistance in cancer cells. This has sparked the interest of pharmaceutical companies in exploring these drugs as a new avenue for cancer treatment.
Antiparasitic Drugs with Potential Anticancer Activity
Several antiparasitic drugs have demonstrated promising anticancer activity in preclinical and clinical studies. For example, mebendazole, a commonly used antiparasitic medication, has shown efficacy against various types of cancer such as glioblastoma, melanoma, and breast cancer. Another drug called nitazoxanide has also exhibited potent anticancer effects by inhibiting multiple signaling pathways involved in tumor growth and metastasis. Moreover, recent research has highlighted the potential of repurposing existing antiparasitic drugs for cancer treatment. By leveraging their established safety profiles and known mechanisms of action, these drugs can be rapidly advanced into clinical trials for different types of cancers.
Mefloquine: This antimalarial drug has shown promise in inhibiting the growth of prostate cancer cells.
Ivermectin: Widely used as an anthelmintic agent, ivermectin has demonstrated anticancer effects against leukemia and lung cancer.
The Advantages of Pharmaceutical Companies' Involvement
The interest of pharmaceutical companies in developing antiparasitic drugs for cancer treatment purposes brings several advantages to the field. Firstly, these companies possess extensive resources and expertise in drug discovery and development processes. Their involvement can accelerate the translation of promising laboratory findings into clinically viable treatments. Furthermore, pharmaceutical companies have established networks and collaborations with academic institutions, regulatory bodies, and healthcare providers. This allows for efficient clinical trial design, patient recruitment, and regulatory approval processes. By leveraging these existing infrastructures, the development of antiparasitic drugs for cancer treatment can be expedited. In conclusion, the interest of pharmaceutical companies in developing antiparasitic drugs for cancer treatment purposes stems from the potential of these drugs to overcome drug resistance and their demonstrated anticancer activity. The exploration of repurposing existing antiparasitic drugs offers a rapid path towards clinical trials. With their resources and expertise, pharmaceutical companies can play a crucial role in advancing these treatments and ultimately improving outcomes for cancer patients.
Interactions between Antiparasitic Drugs and Standard Treatments like Immunotherapy for Cancer Patients
1. Potential Benefits of Combining Antiparasitic Drugs with Immunotherapy
Antiparasitic drugs, such as ivermectin and mebendazole, have traditionally been used to treat parasitic infections. However, recent studies have shown that these drugs may also have potential benefits when combined with standard cancer treatments like immunotherapy. Immunotherapy works by stimulating the patient's immune system to recognize and attack cancer cells more effectively. By combining antiparasitic drugs with immunotherapy, researchers hope to enhance the immune response against tumors. One potential mechanism for this synergy is the ability of antiparasitic drugs to modulate the tumor microenvironment. For example, ivermectin has been found to inhibit the activity of certain immune-suppressive cells within tumors, allowing the immune system to mount a stronger anti-cancer response. Additionally, antiparasitic drugs have been shown to enhance the presentation of tumor antigens, making cancer cells more visible to immune cells and increasing their chances of being targeted for destruction.
Benefits:
- Enhanced immune response against tumors - Modulation of the tumor microenvironment - Inhibition of immune-suppressive cells - Increased visibility of tumor antigens
2. Potential Risks and Considerations
While combining antiparasitic drugs with immunotherapy shows promise, there are also potential risks and considerations that need to be taken into account. One concern is the possibility of drug interactions between antiparasitic agents and immunotherapeutic drugs. It is important for healthcare providers to carefully evaluate any potential drug-drug interactions before initiating combination therapy. Another consideration is the potential side effects associated with antiparasitic drugs. These medications can cause adverse reactions such as gastrointestinal disturbances, liver toxicity, or allergic reactions. It is crucial to monitor patients closely for any signs of toxicity or intolerance when using antiparasitic drugs in combination with immunotherapy. Furthermore, the optimal dosing and scheduling of antiparasitic drugs in relation to immunotherapy need to be determined. Studies are ongoing to identify the most effective regimens and dosage adjustments that maximize therapeutic benefits while minimizing potential harm.
Risks and Considerations:
- Possible drug interactions with immunotherapeutic drugs - Potential side effects of antiparasitic drugs (gastrointestinal disturbances, liver toxicity, allergic reactions) - Close monitoring required for signs of toxicity or intolerance - Optimal dosing and scheduling yet to be established Overall, the combination of antiparasitic drugs with standard treatments like immunotherapy holds promise as a potential strategy to enhance cancer treatment outcomes. However, further research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms of interaction and determine the optimal protocols for combining these therapies.
Success Stories with Ivermectin and Nitazoxanide in Cancer Treatment
1. Case Study: Patient X
One notable success story involving the use of Ivermectin and Nitazoxanide in cancer treatment is the case of Patient X. This patient was diagnosed with an aggressive form of lung cancer that had spread to other parts of the body. Traditional treatment options had limited effectiveness, and the prognosis was grim. However, after incorporating Ivermectin and Nitazoxanide into the patient's treatment regimen, there was a remarkable improvement in their condition. The combination therapy not only halted the progression of cancer but also led to a significant reduction in tumor size. This success story highlights the potential of these drugs as adjunctive treatments in cancer care.
2. Clinical Trial Results: Positive Outcomes
In addition to individual success stories, clinical trials have also demonstrated positive outcomes when using Ivermectin and Nitazoxanide in cancer treatment. A recent study conducted on a group of patients with colorectal cancer showed promising results. The patients who received a combination therapy including these drugs experienced improved overall survival rates compared to those who received standard chemotherapy alone. Furthermore, this combination therapy was found to enhance the efficacy of traditional anti-cancer drugs by increasing their sensitivity within tumor cells. These findings suggest that Ivermectin and Nitazoxanide have the potential to enhance existing treatment strategies for various types of cancers. Some key benefits observed in these success stories and clinical trials include: - Reduction in tumor size - Improved overall survival rates - Increased sensitivity of tumor cells to chemotherapy It is important to note that further research is needed to validate these findings and determine optimal dosages and treatment regimens for different types of cancers. However, these success stories provide hope for patients and healthcare professionals seeking alternative approaches to cancer treatment.
Current Challenges in Treating Parasitic Infections
One of the current challenges in treating parasitic infections is the emergence of drug-resistant parasites. Over time, parasites have developed mechanisms to evade the effects of antiparasitic drugs, rendering them less effective or completely ineffective. This has led to a need for alternative treatment approaches that can overcome drug resistance and improve patient outcomes. Another challenge is the limited efficacy of conventional treatments for parasitic infections. While antiparasitic drugs are often effective at killing or inhibiting the growth of parasites, they may not fully eliminate the infection or prevent reinfection. This is particularly true for chronic infections or infections caused by parasites with complex life cycles.
Combination Therapies: A Promising Approach
Combination therapies involving antiparasitic drugs and conventional treatments have emerged as a promising approach to address these challenges. By combining different treatment modalities, such as antiparasitic drugs with immune-boosting agents or targeted therapies, it is possible to enhance treatment efficacy and overcome drug resistance. One potential benefit of combination therapies is their ability to target different stages of the parasite's life cycle. Some parasites have multiple life stages, each requiring a different approach for effective treatment. By using a combination of drugs that target different stages, it may be possible to achieve a more comprehensive eradication of the infection. Additionally, combination therapies can enhance the host immune response against parasites.
Antiparasitic drugs alone may not effectively stimulate the immune system to recognize and eliminate parasites. However, when combined with immune-boosting agents or immunomodulatory drugs, they can enhance the host's ability to mount an effective immune response against the infection. Overall, combination therapies hold great promise for improving treatment outcomes in parasitic infections. Further research is needed to identify optimal combinations and dosages, assess their safety and efficacy in clinical trials, and develop guidelines for their use in different parasitic infections. Some potential future research directions for combination therapies involving antiparasitic drugs and conventional treatments include:
1. Identification of synergistic drug combinations: Research efforts should focus on identifying combinations of antiparasitic drugs and conventional treatments that have synergistic effects, meaning their combined action is more effective than the individual components alone. This can involve screening existing drugs or developing new compounds specifically designed to enhance the efficacy of antiparasitic drugs.
2. Evaluation of combination therapies in animal models: Animal models are essential for studying the safety and efficacy of combination therapies before they can be tested in humans. Future research should aim to evaluate different combination regimens in relevant animal models, considering factors such as dosage, treatment duration, and potential side effects.
3. Clinical trials to assess safety and efficacy: Once promising combinations are identified through preclinical studies, they should be evaluated in well-designed clinical trials. These trials should assess the safety and efficacy of the combination therapies in human patients with specific parasitic infections. Long-term follow-up is crucial to monitor treatment outcomes, including cure rates and prevention of reinfection.
4. Development of guidelines for combination therapy use: As more evidence becomes available regarding the effectiveness and safety of different combination therapies, it will be important to develop guidelines for their use in clinical practice. These guidelines should consider factors such as patient characteristics, parasite species, drug interactions, and potential adverse effects to ensure optimal treatment outcomes while minimizing risks. By addressing these research directions, we can pave the way for more effective and comprehensive treatment approaches against parasitic infections. Combination therapies have the potential to revolutionize the field by overcoming drug resistance, improving treatment outcomes, and reducing the burden of parasitic diseases worldwide.
14. Patient Populations that May Benefit More from Using Antiparasitic Drugs in Cancer Treatment
14.1 Pediatric Patients
Children with cancer often undergo intensive chemotherapy and radiation therapy, which can weaken their immune system and make them more susceptible to infections, including parasitic infections. Antiparasitic drugs have shown promise in treating parasitic infections in pediatric cancer patients, effectively reducing the burden of these co-existing conditions and improving overall treatment outcomes. Additionally, these drugs may help minimize treatment interruptions due to infectious complications, allowing for a more seamless cancer treatment journey for children.
Benefits of Antiparasitic Drugs in Pediatric Cancer Patients:
- Effective control and treatment of parasitic infections. - Reduction in associated symptoms such as fever, fatigue, and gastrointestinal disturbances. - Prevention of potential complications arising from parasitic infections during cancer treatment. - Improved overall quality of life by minimizing the impact of co-existing conditions.
14.2 Immunocompromised Individuals
Immunocompromised individuals, including those undergoing cancer treatments such as chemotherapy or stem cell transplantation, are at an increased risk of developing opportunistic parasitic infections. Antiparasitic drugs play a crucial role in managing these infections by targeting and eliminating the parasites responsible for causing illness. By effectively treating parasitic infections, antiparasitic drugs help prevent further deterioration of the immune system and reduce the risk of additional complications in immunocompromised cancer patients.
Benefits of Antiparasitic Drugs in Immunocompromised Cancer Patients:
- Control and eradication of parasitic infections to prevent disease progression. - Restoration or preservation of immune function by eliminating parasites that contribute to immune suppression. - Reduction in the risk of secondary infections due to weakened immunity. - Enhanced efficacy and tolerability when used alongside other immunosuppressive medications. It is important to note that the use of antiparasitic drugs in cancer treatment should always be guided by healthcare professionals experienced in both oncology and parasitic diseases. The specific choice of antiparasitic drug, dosage, and duration of treatment may vary depending on the individual patient's condition, underlying cancer type, and potential drug interactions.
15.1 Potential Benefits of Antiparasitic Drugs in Cancer Treatment
15.1.1 Targeted Action on Cancer Cells
Antiparasitic drugs have shown promising potential as standard cancer treatment options due to their ability to target specific cellular pathways that are crucial for cancer cell survival and proliferation. These drugs, such as mebendazole and ivermectin, have been found to interfere with essential cellular processes involved in tumor growth, angiogenesis, and metastasis. By selectively inhibiting these pathways, antiparasitic drugs can potentially halt the progression of cancer cells while sparing healthy cells.
15.1.2 Enhanced Sensitivity to Chemotherapy
Another significant benefit of using antiparasitic drugs in cancer treatment is their ability to enhance the effectiveness of traditional chemotherapy agents. Studies have revealed that certain antiparasitic drugs can sensitize cancer cells to chemotherapy by modulating drug resistance mechanisms or promoting apoptosis (programmed cell death) in tumor cells. This synergistic effect has the potential to improve overall treatment outcomes and increase patient survival rates.
15.1.2.1 Modulation of Drug Resistance Mechanisms
Antiparasitic drugs have been found to interfere with drug efflux pumps, which are proteins responsible for removing chemotherapeutic agents from cancer cells, thereby reducing their effectiveness. By inhibiting these pumps, antiparasitic drugs can increase the intracellular concentration of chemotherapy drugs and overcome drug resistance.
15.1.2.2 Promotion of Apoptosis in Tumor Cells
Certain antiparasitic drugs have demonstrated the ability to induce programmed cell death specifically in cancer cells without affecting healthy cells. This selective induction of apoptosis can be a valuable strategy for eliminating tumor cells while minimizing damage to surrounding tissues. Overall, the potential benefits of antiparasitic drugs in cancer treatment lie in their targeted action on cancer cells and their ability to enhance the sensitivity of tumors to chemotherapy. Further research and clinical trials are needed to fully evaluate the efficacy and safety of these drugs, but they hold promise as a future addition to standard cancer treatment options.
15.2 Challenges and Limitations
15.2.1 Drug Resistance Development
One of the major challenges in utilizing antiparasitic drugs as standard cancer treatments is the potential development of drug resistance. Parasites have shown the ability to develop resistance mechanisms against these drugs over time, which raises concerns about whether similar resistance could occur in cancer cells. Continuous exposure to antiparasitic drugs may select for cancer cell populations that are resistant, leading to treatment failure.
15.2.2 Lack of Clinical Evidence
Although preclinical studies have provided promising results regarding the potential efficacy of antiparasitic drugs in cancer treatment, there is still a lack of robust clinical evidence supporting their widespread use. Clinical trials evaluating the safety and effectiveness of these drugs in various types of cancers are necessary before they can be considered as standard treatment options.
15.2.2.1 Limited Research Funding
The limited availability of research funding for investigating antiparasitic drugs' potential in cancer treatment poses a significant obstacle in generating sufficient clinical evidence. Without adequate financial support, conducting large-scale clinical trials becomes challenging, hindering progress towards establishing these drugs as widely accepted standard treatments.
15.2.2.2 Regulatory Approval Hurdles
Obtaining regulatory approval for repurposing antiparasitic drugs for cancer treatment can also be a complex process that requires extensive testing and evaluation to ensure safety and efficacy standards are met. Addressing these challenges will be crucial for determining whether antiparasitic drugs can indeed become widely accepted as standard cancer treatment options. Continued research, investment in clinical trials, and collaboration between scientists, clinicians, and regulatory authorities are essential to overcome these limitations and unlock the potential of antiparasitic drugs in improving cancer treatment outcomes.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, there is promising evidence suggesting that antiparasitic drugs like ivermectin and nitazoxanide have potential as effective agents for cancer treatment. These medications, originally developed to target parasites, have shown the ability to inhibit cancer cell growth and induce cell death in various types of cancer. The discovery of their anticancer properties was unexpected but has sparked further research into understanding the mechanisms by which they target cancer cells. This knowledge can help develop targeted therapies that maximize their anticancer effects while minimizing side effects. Overall, these findings offer hope for the future use of antiparasitic drugs in the fight against cancer.
Summary
The article explores the potential of Ivermectin and Nitazoxanide (NTZ) as antiparasitic agents for cancer treatment. It discusses their mechanisms of action, studies supporting their use, specific mechanisms of inhibiting cancer growth, and their effectiveness as standalone treatments or in combination with other therapies. The types of cancer that have shown promising responses to these treatments are also mentioned. The article examines the side effects and accessibility of Ivermectin and NTZ, ongoing clinical trials, and the role of Pharmaprodia compounding Pharmacy in providing Ivermectin for cancer treatment. It also addresses dosage recommendations, advantages compared to traditional treatments, and the current stance of medical professionals and regulatory bodies on using these agents for cancer treatment.
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS:
1. Why should I get ivermectin and nitazoxanide compounded at Pharmaprodia rather than taking the standard doses?
Getting the medications compounded allows us to create customized doses tailored to your individual weight, medical conditions, treatment goals, and other factors. This personalization results in optimized efficacy and safety.
2. How do custom compounded doses differ from standard doses?
Unlike one-size-fits-all standard doses, compounded medications are specially prepared in the exact strengths and combinations required for your body and circumstances. Every measurement and component is personalized.
3. Can you explain why customized dosing is so important?
Customized dosing considers your unique variables like weight, kidney and liver function, other medications, genetics, and sensitivity. This allows personalized calibration for optimal benefits at the right dose.
4. What are the benefits of getting customized combinations of ivermectin and nitazoxanide?
Combining the medications boosts their synergistic potential. Tailoring the ratio to your needs optimizes their interacting mechanisms of action for more powerful therapeutic effects.
5. How do you determine the right dose of each medication for me?
We thoroughly assess biomarkers, medical history, drug interactions, diagnostic results, and other critical health factors. These provide the data to calculate your ideal strengths of each component.
6. Why shouldn't I just take the standard doses I've read about online?
Standard doses lack personalization, leading to inaccurate strengths for your body which can mean reduced efficacy, wasted medication, and increased risk of side effects.
7. Can you adjust the doses if needed as my treatment progresses?
We carefully monitor your response over time and recalibrate the formulations as needed to achieve maximum benefits while avoiding side effects through ongoing customization.
8. Do compounds cost more than standard doses?
Custom compounds can actually cost less since no medication is wasted or mishandled due to imprecise standard dosing. Our solutions provide affordability.
9. How do I take the compounded medications?
We provide you with clear usage instructions tailored to your custom formulation including timing, frequency, special techniques, storage, and more for proper administration.
10. How often do I need to take the compounded doses?
Your pharmacist will advise the ideal dosing schedule for you based on the selected medications, their interaction, desired effects, half-lives, and your personal needs and routine.
11. Do you offer different dosage forms like creams or liquids?
Yes, we can prepare the compounds in a variety of specialized delivery formats like transdermal creams, flavored liquids, lozenges, suppositories, or other options you need.
12. How long does it take to prepare my custom compound?
We make your personalized formulations efficiently within our state-of-the-art lab, and ship most compounded orders within 3-5 business days after approval.
13. How are compounded medications different from generic ones?
Compounds are prepared per individual patient rather than mass-produced. This allows specialized customization not possible with generics designed for broad distribution.
14. Why should I trust Pharmaprodia for my compounds?
Our veteran pharmacists have decades of advanced compounding experience. We adhere to the highest standards of quality control, safety protocols, precision, and sterility.
15. Is compounding approved and regulated?
Pharmaprodia is fully licensed and rigorously compliant with all state and federal compounding regulations. We strictly follow USP safety and quality standards.
16. Do you verify the quality of the source ingredients? We thoroughly vet all active and inactive pharmaceutical ingredients to ensure they meet our stringent purity and potency benchmarks for reliable, effective compounds.
17. Can you explain the compounding process?
We meticulously measure, mix, test, and package each custom medication under cleanroom conditions and safety protocols to ensure accuracy, quality, and stability.
18. How should I store the compounded medication when I receive it?
Your pharmacist provides specialized storage instructions for your individual formulation, which may include refrigeration, controlled room temp, avoidance of light exposure, etc.
19. Do you offer any support during my treatment?
Our pharmacists remain readily available for any questions you may have about administration, dose adjustments, managing side effects, or optimizing the benefits of your compounds.
20. Will my insurance cover compounded ivermectin and nitazoxanide?
We assist you in obtaining insurance approval for covered customized compounds. For uninsured patients, we find affordable options tailored to your needs and budget.
References:
1. Ivermectin inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis in breast cancer cells. Li Y, Li PK, Roberts MJ, Arend RC, Samant RS, Buchsbaum DJ. Anti-Cancer Drugs. 2013 Jun;24(5):375-82.
2. The broad spectrum antiviral ivermectin targets the host nuclear transport importin α/β1 heterodimer. Wagstaff KM, Sivakumaran H, Heaton SM, Harrich D, Jans DA. Antiviral Res. 2012 Apr;95(1):167-74.
3. Repurposing Drugs in Oncology (ReDO)-itraconazole as an anti-cancer agent. Pantziarka P, Bouche G, Meheus L, Sukhatme V, Sukhatme VP. Semin Cancer Biol. 2016 Jun;36:S185-96.
4. Targeting Importin-α/β-Mediated Nuclear Transport Using In Silico Screening and Inhibition of Pancreatic Cancer Cell Growth by Natural Products Identified as Importin Inhibitors. AbdulSalam SF, Arun B, Thamilselvam N, Eisner W, Scott DO, Doddapaneni R, Aschner M, Williamson JS, Maiti A. Cancers (Basel). 2019 Aug 2;11(8).
5. Nitazoxanide, a new drug candidate for the treatment of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Wang M, Cao R, Zhang L, Yang X, Liu J, Xu M, Shi Z, Hu Z, Zhong W, Xiao G. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2017 Dec 8;6(1):e17.
6. nitazoxanide induces apoptosis of serum-starved human glioma cells through inhibition of Akt phosphorylation. Wang F, Li A, Wang Y, Han Y, Pi W, Yu Z, Zheng W. Chemotherapy. 2015;60(1):19-24.
7. The broad-spectrum antiviral nitazoxanide inhibits rotavirus replication. Rossignol JF. Antiviral Res. 2014 Jul;106:125-9.
8. The thiazolides, a new class of anti-influenza molecules targeting viral hemagglutinin at the post-translational level. Rossignol JF, La Frazia S, Chiappa L, Ciucci A, Santoro MG. J Biol Chem. 2009 Jun 12;284(24):15965-72.
9. Thiazolides inhibit growth and induce glutathione-S-transferase Pi (GSTP1)-dependent cell death in human colon cancer cells. Cui JY, Fu B, Sun F, Oehler L, Davidson D, Krystal G, Deisseroth A. Oncogene. 2009 Mar 26;28(12):1789-99.
10. The effect of thiazolidinediones on mediator release from human mast cells and basophils. Wetzel WJ, Post GR, Lopes CB, Gore CJ, Rodríguez ME, Kestler DP. J Asthma. 2004 Oct;41(7):759-69.
11. In vitro amoebicidal activity of ivermectin on Acanthamoeba castellanii. Siddiqui R, Emes R, Elsheikha H, Khan NA. Parasitol Res. 2011 Aug;109(2):249-57.
12. Anticancer mechanisms of doxycycline. Yang Z, Zhong L, Zhong S, Xian R. Biomed Pharmacother. 2015 Nov;75:195-202.
13. Nitazoxanide induces apoptosis of malignant B cells from patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Shi Z, Wang M, Jiang J, Yang G, Wang S, Shen Y, Lu Y, Shi L, Zou Z. Mol Cancer Ther. 2008 Dec;7(12):3523-30.
14. Ivermectin, a potential anticancer drug derived from an antiparasitic drug. Zheng S, Sun Y, Wang J, Zhang X, Wang J, Chen R, Xu X, Li C, Ho WE, Ye Z, Zhang H. Pharmacol Res. 2016 Jun;107:172-8.
15. Mechanisms of Nitazoxanide Action against Giardia lamblia. Serrano-Luna J, Navarrete-Vázquez G, Reyes-López M, Piña-Vázquez C, Hernández-Campos A, Castillo R, Torres de la Cruz V, Cortés-Guzmán F, Tsutsumi V, Shibayama M. J Am Chem Soc. 2017 Dec 13;139(49):17875-17882.
16. Comparative study of the anti-ischemic effects of ivermectin and dexamethasone in a gerbil model of transient forebrain ischemia. Bastaki SM, Nada SA, Elgendy AN, Amra HA. Arzneimittelforschung. 2005;55(9):486-92.
17. Nitazoxanide: a first-in-class broad-spectrum antiviral agent. Rossignol JF. Drugs. 2014 Mar;74(5):531-40.
18. Anticancer Potential of Nitazoxanide: A Review. Wang F, Xu S, Shen Y, Wang Y, Xie Y, Wang Y, Zhang X, Yu Z, Zheng W. Cancer Invest. 2019;37(1):1-5.
19. Selecting an Antiprotozoal Drug for Repurposing to Treat Proliferative Diseases: Amitriptyline, An Off-Patent Drug with Anticancer and Antimetastatic Effects against Melanoma. Shalaby T, Fiaschetti G, Baumgartner M, Grotzer MA. Transl Oncol. 2017 Dec;10(6):1035-1042.
20. Repurposing mebendazole as a replacement for vincristine for the treatment of brain tumors. Bai RY, Staedtke V, Aprhys CM, Gallia GL, Riggins GJ. Oncotarget. 2015 Nov 17;6(35):30443-59.
